Explore The Meanings Of The I Am Sayings Religion Essay

Explore The Meanings Of The I Am Sayings Religion Essay Introduction For the children of Israel the term I am was very significant, for it was with this name that God revealed Himself to Moses in the burning bush encounter when He had commanded him to deliver the people of Israel, (Exodus 3:6,14 ). In this case God would be seen as a mighty deliverer or the one who brought salvation to His people from their bondage. In Johannine context, whether it is in the predicate or absolute form the I am sayings essentially were written to reveal God through Christ so that Israel and by extension the world could receive salvation. The purpose of this discourse is to explore the meanings of the I am sayings and their implication for salvation. To accomplish this, the work of various authors along with relevant scriptural passages will be examined and a balanced conclusion will be reached. To accomplish the above objective the writer will explore the two forms of the I am sayings, i.e. the predictive and absolute forms and explain their significance to salvation. The Significance of the I am Sayings The I am sayings are associated with the Greek word, egoeimi, which means, it is I, and this suggest that it is a way of identifying oneself.  [1]  The I am saying are two fold in nature, one is with the pronoun ego used for emphasis. This is essentially the I am sayings with predicates or those followed by a noun. Bauckham cited in Longenecker, argued the predicates were used by John to describe Jesus as the one through which people could receive salvation. The other set of I am sayings were characterized as the absolute which the author stated were used by John to reveal Jesus divinity or deity.  [2]   The predicated I am sayings include examples such as: I am the Bread of Life, I am the Light of the World, etc. These sayings represent descriptions of Jesus as the source of the eternal and the unity of the Godhead, for example, as in John 6:33.  [3]  Bauckham cited in Longenecker also pointed that the seven predicated I am sayings, were significant in Jewish culture. He concluded that seven represented completeness in Jewish culture, thus the seven I am sayings above represented completeness in Christ.  [4]  This point of view although debateable, speaks to the inadequacy of Judaism. Kysar examined the sayings from a cultural-historical context and argued that the, I am sayings was an essential part of Hellenistic religious thought, thus John may have intentionally written them in that way as a method of affirming Jesus identity in contrast to the claims of Hellenistic gods.  [5]  This probably means that John got the attention of the Hellenist because he wrote about something that they were familiar with but from a different perspective, which was to introduce Christ. The author concedes to this view when he argued that the I am sayings introduced Jesus as the divine revelation of God, for example, the use of predicates like the Good Shepherd, promoted Jesus in both the Hellenist and Jewish traditions. For followers of the Jewish tradition it meant that just as Yahweh is one True God, so is Jesus the one True Revealer, none other is comparable.  [6]  Mc Grath showed correlations of Johns I am sayings in Old Testament traditions. For example, he claims th at they allude to fundamental themes in the Old Testament, and apply them to Jesus. Thus when God revealed Himself as I am to Moses and Jesus uses the term, I am He is implying that He is God or He was declaring His divinity.  [7]   It would seem that there was a correlation between the I am sayings and some of Jesus miracles. The resurrection of Lazarus is an example, perhaps this miracle was used to allow the audience to see that He is truly Lord. This may be seen in the number of days for which Lazarus was had been dead. A similar view is proposed by Kaysar who conceded that the I am sayings were concurrent with the signs or miracles performed by Jesus for example, the feeding of the five thousand and Lazarus resurrection were both used to declare different aspects of the person of Christ.  [8]   From the above it is seen that the I am sayings, were essential in revealing Jesus in a descriptive way so that the audience could connect to His divinity. The degree to which this aim was achieved is sometimes questionable because a large section of the Jews appeared oblivious to Jesus declaration which culminated in hostility and eventually His crucifixion. At this juncture the predicted I am sayings will be discussed. The predicated I am Sayings 1) I am the Bread of Life- John 6:35 This saying refers to Jesus as the source of eternal life. It also implies that the human race is in a perpetual state of hunger, searching for food to satisfy the soul, this hunger refers to the emptiness that a person feels without Jesus in their lives. The above view is supported by Quast, who suggested that Jesus used this saying to make a comparison between Himself and Moses in terms of the temporal nature of the Manna which Moses offered. According to him Moses manner was used to satisfy the physical hunger, whilst Jesus as the Bread of Life satisfies spiritual hunger. Additionally Quast noted that Jesus used this saying to prove that He transcended Moses, perhaps hinting to His deity. The author also makes reference to other Old Testament links to this sayings, by proposing that it is related to the Wisdom tradition of Solomon, as seen in (Proverbs 9:5) and Isaiah, (Isaiah 55:1) where God is described as Bread.  [9]  This wisdom then can be seen as a way of giving life because much prominence is given to it in the Proverbs, for example, Proverbs 1:7, Proverbs 2:12 and many more. Quast added a different perspective to this view when he concluded that this is more evidence of Jesus deity which shows that He pre-dated the prop hets of old.  [10]  Perhaps this is indication that Jesus was ready to usher a new paradigm which the Jews were not ready for, which is, belief in Him would result in their salvation and satisfaction so that there would be no need to keep looking for salvation in the works of the Law. Some authors have theorized that Jesus used this saying to invite the Jews into an intimate relationship with Him. This is seen when He challenges them to eat the Bread of Life and drink His blood, (John 6:53).  [11]  This intimacy would result when the Jews came into a relationship with Jesus, but they clearly missed the point as in indicated in the negative reaction of some of the Jews, (John 6:66). This confirms that they had an ulterior motive for following Jesus who was seeking to address their error in thinking. This also shows that there was a lack of sync between Jesus proclamations and the understanding of what He meant, clearly, He was having a difficult time reaching them. This passage has been reinterpreted as communion for the Christian; however, this view has come under attack from Casey who contended that it was meant to focus on Christ and belief in Him.  [12]  Caseys criticism is weak because in communion the focus is on Christ, (1 Corinthians: 11). The main message of this saying is that anyone, who receives Jesus, will have eternal life. Thus there will be no need to search for alternative means of satisfying this spiritual hunger. 2) I am the Light of the World John 8:12 This saying suggests that Jesus is the only true Light, as indicated by use of the. The use of the word a light would have conveyed, something different, meaning one of many lights with no special significance. Thus it is this one True Light who is able to give salvation, the rest of the explanations below provides support for this viewpoint. When Jesus refers to Himself at the Light, He is indicating that He is the source who can bring illumination in the lives of people. This illumination means that He can bring profound spiritual understanding in the lives of men and women which can lead to salivation.  [13]  This is seen in the healing of the blind man in whom both physical healing and spiritual insight about Jesus deity was received. Furthermore it underscores that Jesus is seeking to cure the inner blindness of man which can lead to eternal death. Winstanley confirms this view by concluding that, Jesus is able to give deliverance from inner blindness, darkness and ignorance to the insight and vision of faith.  [14]  The idea of Jesus giving spiritual insight is testament of His deity. Ridderbos took a more critical view of this saying by signifying that it shows a contrast between day and night. Day in this context means opportunities for Jesus to work; presumably to bring the Jews toward Him as the Light, where as darkness refers to the limitations of time which constrained how much could be achieved.  [15]  This view is confirmed in John 12:35. Clarke also presented a pessimistic view by suggesting that Jesus intentions were to use His authority to bring condemnation and to expose all their iniquities and sins.  [16]  Clarkes idea shows a clear deficiency in understanding of Jesus motive. Jesus boldly stated that He does not pass judgment in John 8:15. Some of the Jews rejected Jesus attempt to bring illumination into their lives. Winstanley contended that despite the Light of the Gospel presented to people they may still fail to learn and understand.  [17]  This is probably because people may prefer to remain in bondage than to receive deliverance. 3) I am the Gate for the Sheep John 10:7 I am the gate for the sheep; this phrase parallels the mass exodus of the Israelites from Egypt (Exodus12:13). This deliverance was accompanied by the sprinkling of the blood of a spotless lamb on the door post of every Israelite (Exodus12:13). Keller postulated that everyone who went through this sprinkled door was guaranteed protection from Gods judgement. He further claims that a person went out through that door to liberty, freedom and a new dimension of life under Gods direction.  [18]  Kellers claim is synonymous with Jesus salvation, for example, the door way in Israels case is similar to Jesus as the way or gate to salvation. Similarly, the blood on the doorpost parallels the blood of Jesus which was shed. Consequently, when an individual comes through Jesus salvation is received, (John 10:19). Weaver conceded with the above analysis by stating that this saying implies that Jesus is the only way to salvation, He is the gateway to the Father.  [19]  This is probably because many others proclaimed another way, they are referred to as thieves, strangers because they cannot give salvation. Jesus thus had the task of correcting the falsehood associated with Jewish religious tradition but they fail to perceive His intentions. Weaver suggested that Jesus explanation may have been ambiguous because of the use of Greek terminology, paroimia which means proverb. He claims that this may have been deliberate on Jesus part because this saying was intended for His disciples.  [20]   4) I am the Good Shepherd John 10:11 Here Jesus is seen as the ultimate guide to the Father, the extraordinary love for the sheep or humanity led Him to become a lamb so that this guidance to the Father may be possible. Harris confirms the above by suggesting that for a literal shepherd with a literal flock, the shepherds death would have spelled disaster for the sheep; in this instance it spells life for them.  [21]  Tiat argued from a similar persuasion by noting that Jesus became a lamb to save the sheep.  [22]   OGrady proposed that Johns use of the word shepherd was to convey the reciprocal relationship between Jesus and the individual sheep. According to him this signifies intimacy in the Christian Jesus context and in the unity which is characteristic of the relationship between Jesus and the Father. This union is what leads to eternal life.  [23]  A similar idea is proposed by Brown who suggested that this intimacy qualifies the shepherd to perform duties on behalf of the sheep.  [24]  MacLaren added that these duties included; guidance, guardianship, companionship, sustenanceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. He continued by stating that in response to these duties the sheep simply obeys and trusts the shepherd.  [25]  This idea suggests that Jesus is able to meet all the needs of the person who will trust in Him, Tait stated that this is because the Shepherd has intimate knowledge of the sheep,  [26]  this intimate knowledge is only possible with someone who is Omniscient, thus proving t hat divinity of Christ, as seen in the many instances where He was able to perceive what people thought, Luke 11:17. Jesus identified Himself as a true shepherd which denotes exclusivity, i.e. He is the only shepherd who can give eternal life, and all the others are false. Sanders cited in Barrett supported the above by noting that the Sheep referred to Israel who was bombarded with many false messiahs.  [27]  Thus it is seen that Jesus used this saying to set Him apart from the false messiahs so that Israel may believe on Him. This salvation is not only exclusive to Israel but is extended to the entire world. This is seen in John 10:16, the idea conveyed by use of the term, other sheep, is that salvation is extended to the Gentile world.  [28]   5) I am the Resurrection and the Life John 11:25 This saying was in conjunction with Lazarus resurrection. This showed that Jesus has authority over death and able to give life beyond the natural, which is basically eternal life. Guardinis work confirms the above when he stated that, mortality has no foothold on Jesus.  [29]  He extended his view by proposing that the person who is in Christ has a life which will transcend death. The authors view clearly confirms that the eternal life and resurrection of the Christian is only possible in Jesus. Clarke developed this argument by examining the concept of life, which he contended is the life of the soul which surpasses the thought of death and only attained in Jesus.  [30]  In response to this claim Micklem concluded that our redemption is completed beyond the grave, but it must begin in our hearts now.  [31]  Micklems view suggests that external life and the resurrection on the last day is only possible when a person has received Christ in this lifetime. This resurrection also infers the glorified body that the Christian will have when resurrected. Martini supports the above by noting that Christians will one day possess the physical and spiritual embodiment of a resurrected life just like Christ.  [32]  This is the culmination of eternal life for the Christian, escape from eternal damnation which is described in Matthew 25. 6) I am the Way the Truth and the Life John 14:6 In this saying Jesus points to Himself as the only path to salvation. Martini suggested that term I implies exclusiveness, meaning that Jesus is the only means to salvation, the only truth and the only life.  [33]  He went on to describe Way as the direction and process of salvation which involves acknowledgment of the Way and then repentance. Micklem agreed, by hinting to Jesus mediatory capacity in which He leads those who receive Him to the Father.  [34]   In addition Martini concluded that Jesus illustrated truth by making predictions which came to pass in other words, He substantiated everything He said about Himself.  [35]  Micklem added the saying means deliverance from falsehood, error, judgement and blindness from the truth. He continued by stating that Jesus exposes the truth of the soul in relation to the Truth of God.  [36]  This implies that He exposes the hopelessness of the soul without Him and His ability to give eternal life. This exposure of the Truth of soul sometimes produces hostility as in the case of the Pharisees, thus there must be a corresponding acceptance of Truth for salvation to occur. 7) I am the True Vine John 15:1 This imagery shows that Jesus as the Vine gives life to the branches, thus the Christian can only be sustained in Him.  [37]  Meyer makes a similar observation by noting that the use of the word True is used to make a distinction between the eternal and the temporal.  [38]  This is perhaps to contrast the temporal nature of Judaism or religion with the enduring nature of Jesus salvation. The branches or the Christians are also sustained by producing fruit. Talbert speculated that this refers to evangelism and manifesting all the fruits of the Christian life.  [39]  OGrady and Hylen reached a similar conclusion by noting that fruits refer to love which is a sign of Christianity. This love is able to sustain the Christian. He also noted that the Christian is able to bear fruit only if they remain faithful to Gods word.  [40]  This suggests that the bearing of Fruit has eternal implication which is if a Christian does not live a holy life the result is eternal damnation. The Christian is pruned to promote fruitfulness.  [41]  This pruning is necessary for salvation, John 15:2, 5-6. Thus, the only guarantee of salvation is to remain in Christ daily, not merely receiving Him and living carelessly. This is perhaps because God expects the Christian to make disciples as is commissioned in Matthew 28:19-20. 1) The Absolute Sayings The absolute sayings essentially relate to Jesus divinity. However some have ordinary meanings, for example, John 6:20, I am should be understood as Jesus identifying Himself to the disciples to calm their fears. This is in contrast to the reactions of the soldiers at Gethsemane who fell to the ground when Jesus used the term. I am.  [42]  The reaction of the soldiers clearly proves the deity of Jesus. The I am sayings in the absolute sense prove the deity of Christ as is seen in John 8:39, where Jesus established that He predate Abraham,  [43]  a statement which prompted the Jews to accuse Him of blasphemy. This reaction probably shows that they were clearly not prepared for the change which Jesus was ushering. Some authors have attacked the validity of the I am sayings by hinting to its absence in the other synoptic Gospels.  [44]  Casey noted that in some instances Jesus appeared to be ambiguous which probably led to a misinterpretation on the part of the Jews. From this view this misinterpretation informed their unbelief. Barrett also noted that some of the sayings lack clarification such as I am the Good Shepherd, which is difficult to understand. According to him this is because John combines several themes which do not express a clear thought.  [45]   Brown criticized this view by stating that the I am Sayings, are full of truth and of grace too. They are transparently clear and unfathomably deep.  [46]  Browns view holds relevance because the criticisms above do not apply to all the sayings which in many cases correlated with miracles to inspire the Jews to believe, so that if the sayings were ambiguous then the miracles would provide clarity; thus, it is the Jew who chose to disbelieve. Conclusion The main theme of the I am sayings is salvation through Christ. These sayings promote various aspects of Jesus character and deity and simultaneously show how people could resist the gospel because of religious traditions or ideology. In order words the pride produced by self righteousness can be a major hindrance to a persons salvation. This is because in such instances the individual defines themselves righteous; consequently, the gospel may be seen as an offense to them. Thus the method used to present the Gospel should be one where Christ is the central message and not an attack on religious ideology.

Battle of Marathon

The battle of Marathon is one of history's most famous military engagements. It is also one of the earliest recorded battles. Their victory over the Persian invaders gave the fledgling com/world-history-unit-3/">Greek city states confidence in their ability to defend themselves and belief in their continued existence. The battle is therefore considered a defining moment in the development of European culture. In September of 490 BC a Persian armada of 600 ships disgorged an invasion force of approximately 20,000 infantry and cavalry on Greek soil just north of Athens.Their mission was to crush the Greek states in retaliation for their support of their Ionian cousins who had revolted against Persian rule. Undaunted by the numerical superiority of the invaders, Athens mobilized 10,000 hoplite warriors to defend their territory. The two armies met on the Plain of Marathon twenty-six miles north of Athens. The flat battlefield surrounded by hills and sea was ideal for the Persian cavalry . Surveying the advantage that the terrain and size of their force gave to the Persians, the Greek generals hesitated.One of the Greek generals – Miltiades – made a passionate plea for boldness and convinced his fellow generals to attack the Persians. Miltiades ordered the Greek hoplites to form a line equal in length to that of the Persians. Then – in an act that his enemy believed to be complete madness – he ordered his Greek warriors to attack the Persian line at a dead run. In the ensuing melee, the middle of the Greek line weakened and gave way, but the flanks were able to engulf and slaughter the trapped Persians. An estimated 6,400 Persians were slaughtered while only 192 Greeks were killed.The remaining Persians escaped on their ships and made an attempt to attack what they thought was an undefended Athens. However, the Greek warriors made a forced march back to Athens and arrived in time to thwart the Persians. â€Å"With you it rests, Callimach us† – Indecision before battle Known as the â€Å"Father of History†, Herodotus wrote his description of the battle a few years after it occurred. We join his account as the Athenians arrive at the battleground and are joined by a force of approximately 1000 of their Plataean allies.The Greek military leaders split on whether they should immediately attack the invaders or wait for reinforcements: ADVERTISMENT â€Å"The Athenians were drawn up in order of battle in a sacred close belonging to Heracles, when they were joined by the Plataeans, who came in full force to their aid. The Athenian generals were divided in their opinions. Some advised not to risk a battle, because they were too few to engage such a host as that of the Persians. Others were for fighting at once. Among these last was Miltiades.He therefore, seeing that opinions were thus divided, and that the less worthy counsel appeared likely to prevail, resolved to go to the polemarch [an honored dignit ary of Athens], and have a conference with him. For the man on whom the lot fell to be polemarch at Athens was entitled to give his vote with the ten generals, since anciently the Athenians allowed him an equal right of voting with them. The polemarch at this juncture was Callimachus of Aphidnre; to him therefore Miltiades went, and said:‘With you it rests, Callimachus, either to bring Athens to slavery, or, by securing her freedom, to be remembered by all future generations. For never since the time that the Athenians became a people were they in so great a danger as now. If they bow their necks beneath the yoke of the Persians, the woes which they will have to suffer†¦ are already determined. If, on the other hand, they fight and overcome, Athens may rise to be the very first city in Greece. ‘ ‘We generals are ten in number, and our votes are divided: half of us wish to engage, half to avoid a combat.Now, if we do not fight, I look to see a great disturbance at Athens which will shake men's resolutions, and then I fear they will submit themselves. But, if we fight the battle before any unsoundness shows itself among our citizens,†¦ we are well able to overcome the enemy. ‘ ‘On you therefore we depend in this matter, which lies wholly in your own power. You have only to add your vote to my side and your country will be free – and not free only, but the first state in Greece.Or, if you prefer to give your vote to them who would decline the combat, then the reverse will follow. ‘ Miltiades by these words gained Callimachus; and the addition of the polemarch's vote caused the decision to be in favor of fighting. ‘† The Battle Begins Miltiades arranges the Greek line of battle so that it stretches the length of the opposing, and far superior, Persian army. Then, much to the surprise of the Persians, he orders the Greek warriors to charge headlong into the enemy line. â€Å"The Athenians†¦ char ged the barbarians at a run.Now the distance between the two armies was little short of eight furlongs [approximately a mile] The Persians, therefore, when they saw the Greeks coming on at speed, made ready to receive them, although it seemed to them that the Athenians were bereft of their senses, and bent upon their own destruction; for they saw a mere handful of men coming on at a run without either horsemen or archers. Such was the opinion of the barbarians; but the Athenians in close array fell upon them, and fought in a manner worthy of being recorded.They were the first of the Greeks, so far as I know, who introduced the custom of charging the enemy at a run, and they were likewise the first who dared to look upon the Persian garb, and to face men clad in that fashion. Until this time the very name of the Persians had been a terror to the Greeks to hear. The two armies fought together on the plain of Marathon for a length of time; and in the mid-battle the barbarians were vict orious, and broke and pursued the Greeks into the inner country; but on the two wings the Athenians and  the Plataeans defeated the enemy .Having so done, they suffered the routed barbarians to fly at their ease, and joining the two wings in one, fell upon those who had broken their own center, and fought and conquered them. These likewise fled, and now the Athenians hung upon the runaways and cut them down, chasing them all the way to the shore, on reaching which they laid hold of the ships and called aloud for fire. † The Persians Attack AthensMiltiades arranges the Greek line of battle so that it stretches the length of the opposing, and far superior, Persian army. Then, much to the surprise of the Persians, he orders the Greek warriors to charge headlong into the enemy line. â€Å"†¦ the Athenians secured in this way seven of the vessels; while with the remainder the barbarians pushed off, and taking aboard their Eretrian prisoners from the island where they had le ft them, doubled Cape Sunium, hoping to reach Athens before the return of the Athenians.The Persians accordingly sailed round Sunium. But the Athenians with all possible speed marched away to the defense of their city, and succeeded in reaching Athens before the appearance of the barbarians†¦ The barbarian fleet arrived, and lay to off Phalerum, which was at that time the haven of Athens; but after resting awhile upon their oars, they departed and sailed away to Asia. â€Å" Battle of Marathon The battle of Marathon is one of history's most famous military engagements. It is also one of the earliest recorded battles. Their victory over the Persian invaders gave the fledgling Greek city states confidence in their ability to defend themselves and belief in their continued existence. The battle is therefore considered a defining moment in the development of European culture. In September of 490 BC a Persian armada of 600 ships disgorged an invasion force of approximately 20,000 infantry and cavalry on Greek soil just north of Athens.Their mission was to crush the Greek states in retaliation for their support of their Ionian cousins who had revolted against Persian rule. Undaunted by the numerical superiority of the invaders, Athens mobilized 10,000 hoplite warriors to defend their territory. The two armies met on the Plain of Marathon twenty-six miles north of Athens. The flat battlefield surrounded by hills and sea was ideal for the Persian cavalry. Surveying the advantage t hat the terrain and size of their force gave to the Persians, the Greek generals hesitated.One of the Greek generals – Miltiades – made a passionate plea for boldness and convinced his fellow generals to attack the Persians. Miltiades ordered the Greek hoplites to form a line equal in length to that of the Persians. Then – in an act that his enemy believed to be complete madness – he ordered his Greek warriors to attack the Persian line at a dead run. In the ensuing melee, the middle of the Greek line weakened and gave way, but the flanks were able to engulf and slaughter the trapped Persians. An estimated 6,400 Persians were slaughtered while only 192 Greeks were killed.The remaining Persians escaped on their ships and made an attempt to attack what they thought was an undefended Athens. However, the Greek warriors made a forced march back to Athens and arrived in time to thwart the Persians. â€Å"With you it rests, Callimachus† – Indecisi on before battle Known as the â€Å"Father of History†, Herodotus wrote his description of the battle a few years after it occurred. We join his account as the Athenians arrive at the battleground and are joined by a force of approximately 1000 of their Plataean allies.The Greek military leaders split on whether they should immediately attack the invaders or wait for reinforcements: ADVERTISMENT â€Å"The Athenians were drawn up in order of battle in a sacred close belonging to Heracles, when they were joined by the Plataeans, who came in full force to their aid. The Athenian generals were divided in their opinions. Some advised not to risk a battle, because they were too few to engage such a host as that of the Persians. Others were for fighting at once. Among these last was Miltiades.He therefore, seeing that opinions were thus divided, and that the less worthy counsel appeared likely to prevail, resolved to go to the polemarch [an honored dignitary of Athens], and have a conference with him. For the man on whom the lot fell to be polemarch at Athens was entitled to give his vote with the ten generals, since anciently the Athenians allowed him an equal right of voting with them. The polemarch at this juncture was Callimachus of Aphidnre; to him therefore Miltiades went, and said:‘With you it rests, Callimachus, either to bring Athens to slavery, or, by securing her freedom, to be remembered by all future generations. For never since the time that the Athenians became a people were they in so great a danger as now. If they bow their necks beneath the yoke of the Persians, the woes which they will have to suffer†¦ are already determined. If, on the other hand, they fight and overcome, Athens may rise to be the very first city in Greece. ‘ ‘We generals are ten in number, and our votes are divided: half of us wish to engage, half to avoid a combat.Now, if we do not fight, I look to see a great disturbance at Athens which will shake men's resolutions, and then I fear they will submit themselves. But, if we fight the battle before any unsoundness shows itself among our citizens,†¦ we are well able to overcome the enemy. ‘ ‘On you therefore we depend in this matter, which lies wholly in your own power. You have only to add your vote to my side and your country will be free – and not free only, but the first state in Greece.Or, if you prefer to give your vote to them who would decline the combat, then the reverse will follow. ‘ Miltiades by these words gained Callimachus; and the addition of the polemarch's vote caused the decision to be in favor of fighting. ‘† The Battle Begins Miltiades arranges the Greek line of battle so that it stretches the length of the opposing, and far superior, Persian army. Then, much to the surprise of the Persians, he orders the Greek warriors to charge headlong into the enemy line. â€Å"The Athenians†¦ charged the barbarians at a run .Now the distance between the two armies was little short of eight furlongs [approximately a mile] The Persians, therefore, when they saw the Greeks coming on at speed, made ready to receive them, although it seemed to them that the Athenians were bereft of their senses, and bent upon their own destruction; for they saw a mere handful of men coming on at a run without either horsemen or archers. Such was the opinion of the barbarians; but the Athenians in close array fell upon them, and fought in a manner worthy of being recorded.They were the first of the Greeks, so far as I know, who introduced the custom of charging the enemy at a run, and they were likewise the first who dared to look upon the Persian garb, and to face men clad in that fashion. Until this time the very name of the Persians had been a terror to the Greeks to hear. The two armies fought together on the plain of Marathon for a length of time; and in the mid-battle the barbarians were victorious, and broke and pursu ed the Greeks into the inner country; but on the two wings the Athenians andthe Plataeans defeated the enemy . Having so done, they suffered the routed barbarians to fly at their ease, and joining the two wings in one, fell upon those who had broken their own center, and fought and conquered them. These likewise fled, and now the Athenians hung upon the runaways and cut them down, chasing them all the way to the shore, on reaching which they laid hold of the ships and called aloud for fire. † The Persians Attack AthensMiltiades arranges the Greek line of battle so that it stretches the length of the opposing, and far superior, Persian army. Then, much to the surprise of the Persians, he orders the Greek warriors to charge headlong into the enemy line. â€Å"†¦ the Athenians secured in this way seven of the vessels; while with the remainder the barbarians pushed off, and taking aboard their Eretrian prisoners from the island where they had left them, doubled Cape Sunium, hoping to reach Athens before the return of the Athenians.The Persians accordingly sailed round Sunium. But the Athenians with all possible speed marched away to the defense of their city, and succeeded in reaching Athens before the appearance of the barbarians†¦ The barbarian fleet arrived, and lay to off Phalerum, which was at that time the haven of Athens; but after resting awhile upon their oars, they departed and sailed away to Asia. † References: Herodotus's account appears in: Davis, William Sterns, Readings in Ancient History (1912); Creasy, Edward, The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World (1969). Battle of Marathon Despite of the disadvantaged conditions of Athenians, according to the records of Herodotus, their victory was still achieved through well-planned military strategy by the leading of Miltiades, and by taking advantage over the terrain and weather during war. Introduction From the very start of the war preparation, the smile of victory was not even a glimpse clear to Athenians.The Athenians learned the Persian army were soon sailing from Eretria to Marathon, and with this knowledge, they commenced their preparation for battle (6. 1023).The Athenians were completely beginning their combat in a disadvantaged state. During their preparation, external and internal conflicts occurred that held them unable to form alliance with other Greek nations. From Herodotus accounts, the internal problems occurred mainly due to the division in the ten Athenian generals (6. 109).They were arguing the most convenient military strategy, but the military had doubts as to whether they should give bank agai nst the enemy outside the city or else allow the situation to lead out a siege (Grote 2001 304).By quantity, the records of Persians and Sacaes’ army surpassed the union of Athenians and Plataeans (6. 113).Therefore, the triumph of Persians was initially more conceivable due to their immense battling power and the disadvantaged condition of Athens. Discussion Disadvantages of Athens Over Persians During the Battle With the historical accounts on Athenian versus Persian’s military, Athens suffered the most in terms of military quantity and conflicting military strategy. The Persian army came across the Aegean Sea on a large fleet. Their fleet’s first activity destroyed the small city of Eretria on Euboea, and then crossed over to Attica.Considering this illustration, the Athenians were vastly outnumbered by the Persian fleets. The only military advantage of Athenians was to meet the Persian army in land (Dandamaev 1989 178). However, even by land, the Athenians w ere in a difficult position and they initially had no reason to hope for assistance outside their realm. An estimate of the Persian army in 490 B. C. —at about 4,000 to 6,000 warriors, including 500 to 800 mounted men- overpowered Athenian’s fleet. Meanwhile, as with the Greeks, there were large numbers of unarmored men but still smaller in quantity compared with the Persians.In addition to this, the neighboring districts, such as Bocotia, could have posed as Greek allies, but turned against them by openly welcoming the advent of the Persians (Creasy 1863 50; Grote 2001 304). Fortunately, the Athenians were able to find alliance with the Plataeans to combat the Persians (6. 111).In terms of internal problems of Athens, political disagreements were occurring during the time of their war preparation, which gravely placed Athens in a disadvantage position over the Persians. The last tyrant of Athens who was deprived of his power and exiled from Athens was Hippias. However , He was given a position by the Persians as governor of the town of Sigeum on the Hellespont in order to illustrate the illusion of their political generosity to Greeks (Creasy 1863 52).The political strife continued between the aristocrats and the democratic party. In particular, there was the noble family of the Alcmeonids (who had been deprived of their power by their political opponent Miltiades) united itself with the adherents of Hippias and hoped to return Hippias power with their political strife. Some of the Athenians were prepared to help the Persian and without publicly acclaiming so, hoped for their victory. Now, at an advanced age, he returned with the Persian army to Attica where his secret adherents awaited him (Grote 2001 305).Many Greek Elites were opposed to the risky war with the Persians, since the defeat from war would lose their riches and influence (Dandamaev 1989 177).Some were tempted to surrender the city to the Persian and to take all possible advantage f rom this voluntary submission. The Strategies of War by Persians Under the guidance of Hippias, the former ruler of Athens, the Persians chose the plain of Marathon for their debarkation area (Creasy 1863 53).The mission of the Persian commanders Datis and Artaphernes were the first to debark the army at some point on the Athenian coast, and then to attack and conquer the city of Athens itself. Arguing, if an Athenian army should appear in the open countryside, then it would first had to be defeated and driven back (Grote 2001 304).Unfortunately, the Athenians were unable to determine the landing point of the Persians. It was at a distance of about nineteen miles from Athens and their landing point was unguarded by Athens. As for these statements, the Athenians were completely disadvantaged in their positions of war towards the Persians.However, the argument still lies on how Athenians were able to combat the Persians and attain victor. When the Persian army disembarked at Marathon, there was considerable disagreement in the Athenian assembly concerning the tactics for the impending battle with the Persians. Miltiades, the leader of the conservative farmers who was once Athenian strategoi (the highest military commanders), feared betrayal from the side of the pro-Persian faction and therefore insisted on an immediate advance upon the Persians (Dandamaev 1989 179).In addition from Herodotus accounts, the ten military generals of Athens were divided with the opinions on how to strategize the war (6. 109).Athenians were confronted with political division, military disorganized tactics, and an army with mostly unarmored peasants. The Acts of Miltiades and the Turn to Athenian Victor From the discussed portions of this study depicting the weakness of Athens both externally and internally, their side was still able to triumph the war. From the accounts of historian Gillis, the Athenian army consisted of about 10,000 men who marched to the plain of Marathon.There wer e also approximately 1,000 men from the allied Boeotian town of Plataea, located at the border of Attica (44). The Athenians did not expect help from the other Greeks because the neighboring Greeks were already indifferent towards the fate of Athens, which had the impudence to wage war against â€Å"the Great Kin†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. Moreover, other neighboring Greeks considered the alliance to Persian army against Athens, such as the neighboring island of Aegina, which for long had been a rival of Athens.Athens was condemned in loosing the battle unless formations of ally were to be made. Fortunately, it was Miltiades, who resolved the issues of alliance, with his agreement with Callimachus (Herodotus, 6. 110).In addition, Miltiades resolved the conflict of the ten generals rendering their internal military forces unified. At the same time, from the accounts of Gillis, the famous runner Pheidippides was sent to Sparta in order to present the Athenian request for help (44).The Spartans promised assistance but they did not hasten to send out their soldiers as there was an old belief that it was impossible to start a campaign before a full moon (MacGregor 2005 194). Sparta was afraid that the Persians, after conquering Attica, would advance towards the Peloponnesus and set up a naval blockade of the peninsula (Gillis 1831 44).Many from the Athenian Elites and civilians were opposed to immediate action of war; however, Miltiades and his adherents finally managed to persuade the Athenians to attack and defeat the Persians. It should be noted that the Persian army was encamped in the open plain where it was possible for them to deploy their cavalry. The Athenians, who were without cavalry, had assembled in a narrow part of the plain.The terrain was an advantage for Athenians as it offered no advantages to the Persian horsemen. In the meantime, the situation of the Persian army had deteriorated, and the Persian commander Datis, awaiting in vain some sign from his friend s in Athens, was forced to rake a decision as to the necessary course of action (Gillis 1831 44).He apparently knew about the Spartan decision to march towards Attica after the next full moon, and wanted to decide the war before their arrival (Mure 1853 130).At the same time, he was unable to move his army towards the defile where the Athenians were entrenched. Datis attentively followed events at Athens, whence he expected the signal (a shield lifted up above the city walls) that would indicate the city had come under the control of the adherents of the dethroned tyrant, Hippias (Mure 1853 132).In Athens, the supporters of the Persians were ready to act, but they could not decide on whether to take the risk or not. Thus, in their turn, they waited for the Persian army to defeat the Athenians (Gillis 1831 45). The battle commenced on the morning of the 12th of August, 490 B. C. (for the chronology, see Burn 1970:257). The Athenians quickly lined up, left their defensive position in the narrows and in a quick march descended down the defile to the enemy (Mure 1853 132).The front line of the Athenians was as wide as that of the Persians, although in the centre the Athenian ranks were not as deep. The disposition of both armies was in accordance with the traditions of both sides: the Persians positioned the best troops in the centre, while the Greeks usually attempted at all cost to fight a victory on the flanks and subsequently to turn upon the centre of the enemy ranks. When full moon had come, Sparta sent 2,000 soldiers to the assistance of the Athenians. However, Spartan force arrived when the battle had already been decided. The Spartans looked with interest at the corpses of the fallen Persians, as most of them had never seen Persians before (Mure 1853 132).The victory at Marathon was the first success of the Greeks in the wars with the Persians who had previously seemed invincible (MacGregor 2005 194).ConclusionThe defeat of the Persians was caused by a co mbination of factors. First, although their army to a certain degree surpassed in number that of the Athenians, only part of the Persian troops could take part in the battle, while the cavalry could not join in at all and had to remain idle. Second, the Persians were campaigning in an unknown country and had been forced to make a long journey to arrive at Marathon.Third, the heavily armed Greek foot soldiers, the hoplites, were protected by iron armour, and as a result, the lightly armed Persian elite troops could not breach their ranks. Fourth and of considerable significance, is the fact that the Athenian army was commanded by the talented general Miltiades, who was well acquainted with Persian military tactics.Works CitedPrimary Resources: Rawlinson, George, and Herodotus. The Persian Wars by Herodotus: Book 6 – ERATO. 1942.Secondary Resources: Creasy, Edward S. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, from Marathon to Waterloo. Harper, 1863.Dandamaev, D A. A Political H istory of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL, 1989.George, Grote S. A History of Greece: From the Time of Solon to 403 Bc. Routledge, 2001.Gillis, John S. The History of Ancient Greece: Its Colonies and Conquests. Thomas Wardle, 1831.MacGregor, MacGregor. The Story of Greece. Yesterday's Classics, 2006.Mure, William S. A critical history of the language and literature of antient Greece. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1853.

Essay about Hills Like White Elephants, by Ernest Hemingway

Hills Like White Elephants The Latin saying, mutatis mutandi, translates into everything affects everything else, and this especially applies to the characterization used in Ernest Hemingway’s Hills Like White Elephants. Through close examination, it is evident that the character of Jig is revealed not only through her own actions, but also through the contrasting descriptions of her surrounding environment and her subtle mannerisms. By strategically scattering these faint clues to Jig’s persona though out the story, Hemingway forces the reader to overcome common stereotypes and examine ambiguous dialogue before being able to discover the round, dynamic character that is Jig. Initially, Jig’s character is referred to as†¦show more content†¦Jig’s rounded character is revealed only when her statements are closely analyzed and placed into context. When reading the story, it is easy to miss the obvious sarcasm in statements such as †¦And afterward they were all so happy (344) due to the skillful way that Hemingway hides Jig’s true inner self. Jig’s inner struggle is mirrored and indirectly shared with us through her contrasting environment and dialogue. The story introduces itself with the gloomy description The hills across the valley of the Ebro were long and white. On this side there was no shade and no trees†¦ (343) which clearly clashes with the fertile description of the opposite side, described as †¦fields of grain and trees along the banks of the Ebro. Far away, beyond the river, were mountains. (345) Other contrasts are apparent though out the narrative, such as Jig’s association with light as opposed to the American’s relationship to darkness. This association is evident in Jig’s recognition of her environment, noting that the hills were †¦white in the sun†¦ (343), and is further developed through minute details like The girl smiled brightly at the woman†¦ (346) These contrasts act as an important bridge between the superficial two-dimensional girl and the complex rounded woman that we can identify with. Hemingway purposely refrains from giving the characters proper names, allowing them to be symbols of many couples in the same situation. This ambiguousShow MoreRelatedHills Like White Elephants by Ernest Hemingway580 Words   |  2 PagesE.B. White once said, â€Å"Theres no limit to how complicated things can get, on account of one thing always leading to another.† This quotation means that nobody ever knows how complicated things are going to get, and on top of that they can get worse. One can agree with this statement because in life you can go through unexpected situations that really affect your life in a negative way, and in life things might get worse. Both Soldiers home by Ernest Hemingway and Hills like white elephants by ErnestRead More`` Hills Like White Elephants `` By Ernest Hemingway886 Words   |  4 Pagesreader could put themselves into. Whether they choose to partake in a wayward journey full of adventure or the daily life of a human being with mora ls; a story’s aspect influences those thoughts with a deeper understanding. In Ernest Hemingway’s â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants,† it follows an American man and girl at a resting point during their travels. They arrived by train, stopping between Barcelona and Madrid. While there, they patiently waited for the next train at a bar inside of the station.Read MoreHills Like White Elephants By Ernest Hemingway893 Words   |  4 Pages Ernest Hemingway was a prolific writer. His short story, â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† shows the tense situation between a man and a woman on vacation. Hemingway chooses to be vague in many ways. He never gives real names to his characters, nor explicitly states where they are besides hinting that they are in Spain. Additionally, he leaves it entirely to the reader to discover what the couple is discussing. By only providing information to the reader through only the dialogue of the two centralRead More`` Hills Like W hite Elephants `` By Ernest Hemingway939 Words   |  4 PagesThe short story â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† written by Ernest Hemingway, is an intriguing literary work that foretells the story of a man and a woman waiting for a train, whilst discussing their feelings and emotions towards the surgical operation that is about to occur on the woman. Although the story was originally written in August 1927, the piece was later published in Hemingway’s short story collection ‘Men Without Women’. The text includes a wide variety of literary terms and has various criticalRead MoreHills Like White Elephants By Ernest Hemingway990 Words   |  4 Pages Another relationship coming to an end†¦ Throughout the story â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† written in 1927 by Ernest Hemingway, he used the train station setting, the desired operation, and obviously the relationship between the American and the girl to symbolize a crumbling relationship and unwanted gift between them. The American and the girl find themselves wound up in a rough, unplanned situation that they are trying to fix. Many bread crumbs are dropped throughout the story to symbolize a collapsingRead MoreHills Like White Elephants By Ernest Hemingway1446 Words   |  6 PagesErnest Hemingway’s short story â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† explores the topics of abortion, sex before marriage, and feelings of separation. There are many different points of view one can take on Hemingway’s work. The main literary analysis that will be explained is the significance of the title and how it is layered into the story in various places. In addition to this, the narrator’s point of view will also be discussed since it plays a role in bringing the characters together. Lastly, it willRead More`` Hills Like White Elephants `` By Ernest Hemingway1750 Words   |  7 PagesErnest Hemingway’s stories are known for their ever interpreting meanings behind them, and â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† does not trail from the rest due to the never mentioned word ‘abortion’. â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants,† written by Ernest Hemingway, takes place around World War 1 in Spain, at a train station (Hills Like White Elephants. 4). An American man and a girl have been discussing the girl’s unspecific operation. It is apparent that the girl is perturbed about this operation, while theRead MoreHills Like White Elephants By Ernest Hemingway1037 Words   |  5 PagesOlivia Sellers English 102 Scheck February 10, 2016 â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† by Ernest Hemingway Ernest Hemingway’s â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† can be puzzling and hard to decipher. Due to this, a number of conclusions can be drawn away from the text. The dialog between characters leaves a number of questions unanswered and leaves the reader confused about the conversation as a whole. Many things are left unsaid and not explained in the story, with that being the case, the reader must takeRead More`` Hills Like White Elephant `` By Ernest Hemingway865 Words   |  4 Pagesbefore it begins, or as easily getting rid of problem before it even became one. In the short story â€Å"Hills like White Elephant†, the compensation of abortion can easily be seen between Jig and her American lover’s decision whether to keep the innocent’s life or not. Ernest Hemingway uses the fiction element plot, symbolism, and setting to illustrate the theme of abortion in â€Å"Hills like White Elephants.† Abortion has been viewed as a crucial struggle between couples. Many view this situation as endingRead MoreHills Like White Elephants, by Ernest Hemingway1432 Words   |  6 Pagesunderstood behaviors. Ernest Hemingway weaves both of these stereotypes into his short story â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants.† The story’s plot revolves around a couple arguing about whether or not to have an abortion. In Hemingway’s â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† a theme of male domination can be found, but by examining the dialogue closely, a theme of females asserting their will and manipulating emerges as well. Male domination is the primary and most obvious theme in â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants.† During the

John Steinbeck - 2062 Words

Emily Trahan Pearce English 1302 22 April 2014 Research Paper Literature dates back all the way to 5th century AD overtime Literary works have been develop such as novel, poems, and short stories. Short Stories are described has miniature versions of books or novels, where an author takes a tale and crams it into a ten to twenty page story. John Steinbeck is not only a well-known novelist, but also writes short stories like â€Å"The Chrysanthemums† and â€Å"Flight†. In Steinbeck’s â€Å"The Chrysthemums† Elisa Allen is married to a negligent ranch owner. While her husband works on the ranch, Elisa tends to her chrysanthemum garden daily. One day while tending to her garden, a charming tinker man pulls up to her in his wagon and tries to make a†¦show more content†¦The cattle on the higher slopes were becoming shaggy and rough-coated† (p.3). Creating a descriptive image of what the Allen’s farm is like and even giving off some of the five senses while reading those few sentences. Steinbeck in Flight creates the setting for the Torress’ home, describing how â€Å"The little shack, the rattling, rotting barn were gray-bitten with sea salt, beaten by the damp wind until they had taken on the color of the granite hills† (p.1). He gives the reader a live image of the weather, the families’ home, and the nature setting of the story. He uses great detail in creating the setting in each of these stories because it sets the tone and atmosphere for each of them. Steinbeck uses his setting to set the theme and tone in his short stories, making the element crucial in each story. In both Flight and The Chrysanthemums, Pepà © and Elisa struggle with their identity and who they are. Pepà © is nineteen with a dead father, a mother, and two younger siblings. He wants his right to manhood but his mother wants to keep him under wing. This is where the two have conflict, his mother constantly makes him feel like a child and Pepà © just wants to show himself and his f amily that he is ready to be a man. Steinbeck shows this by writing how â€Å"Mama thought him fine and brave, but she never told him so. She said, ‘Some lazy cow must have got into thy father s family, elseShow MoreRelated John Steinbeck Essay1174 Words   |  5 PagesJohn Steinbeck A novelist is someone who writes novels, or writes a fancy work of fiction which often has a complicated plot, many major and minor characters, a significant theme, and several varied settings. A novelist will use literary devices such as characterization, tone, symbolism, imagery, and figurative language. 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